Chapter 3 THE DELHI SULTANS

Finding Out About The Delhi Sultans

Delhi became a significant capital city in the 12th century. Initially, it was the capital of the Tomara Rajputs, who were later defeated by the Chauhan (Chahamana) rulers of Ajmer. Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi grew into an important commercial hub, home to wealthy Jaina merchants and numerous temples. Coins minted in Delhi, known as dehliwal, were widely circulated.

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th century marked the beginning of Delhi's transformation into a capital that exerted control over vast regions of the subcontinent. The Sultanate was founded by five dynasties: the Early Turkish Rulers, Khalji, Tughluq, Sayyid, and Lodi dynasties.

Sources of Information

Historical information about the Delhi Sultans is derived from inscriptions, coins, and architecture. However, the most valuable sources are the historical accounts, known as tarikh (singular) or tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the administrative language of the time. These accounts were penned by learned individuals such as secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers who documented events and advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of just rule.

The authors of these histories generally resided in cities like Delhi and often wrote with the expectation of receiving rewards from the Sultans. Their writings reflected an "ideal" social order based on birthright and gender distinctions, which were not universally shared beliefs.

Raziyya Sultan

In 1236 CE, Raziyya, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, ascended the throne. The chronicler Minhaj-i Siraj acknowledged her competence and qualifications, superior to her brothers. However, he was uncomfortable with a female ruler and noted the nobles' dissatisfaction with her independent rule. Raziyya was ultimately removed from power in 1240. Minhaj-i Siraj attributed her rule to a deviation from the divinely ordained social order where women were subordinate to men. In contrast, Queen Rudramadevi of the Kakatiya dynasty (1262-1289) and Queen Didda of Kashmir (980-1003) also ruled, with Rudramadevi even adopting masculine titles in her inscriptions.

From Garrison Town To Empire: The Expansion Of The Delhi Sultanate

In the early 13th century, the Delhi Sultans' authority was largely confined to heavily fortified garrison towns. They relied on trade, tribute, and plunder for supplies, as controlling the hinterlands adjacent to cities (hinterland) was difficult. Maintaining communication and control over distant regions like Bengal and Sind was challenging due to factors like rebellion, war, and adverse weather.

The Sultanate's authority also faced threats from Mongol invasions and rebellious governors. The Sultanate's survival and consolidation were significantly advanced during the reigns of Ghiyasuddin Balban and further expanded under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.

Internal Frontier

The initial phase of expansion involved consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns. This included clearing forests in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and relocating forest dwellers and pastoralists to facilitate agriculture. New fortresses, garrison towns, and other settlements were established to secure trade routes and promote regional trade.

External Frontier

The second phase of expansion targeted the "external frontier" of the Sultanate. Military expeditions into southern India commenced during Alauddin Khalji's reign and continued under Muhammad Tughluq. These campaigns resulted in the capture of elephants, horses, slaves, and precious metals. By the end of Muhammad Tughluq's reign, the Delhi Sultanate's armies had advanced across a significant portion of the subcontinent, conquering cities and collecting taxes from the peasantry, though effective control over such a vast territory remained a challenge.

A Closer Look: Administration and Consolidation Under The Khaljis And Tughluqs

The effective administration and consolidation of the vast Delhi Sultanate required reliable governors and officials. The early Sultans, particularly Iltutmish, favored their loyal slaves, known as bandagan in Persian, who were trained for important political roles and were entirely dependent on their master.

Bandagan And Clients

The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs continued to employ bandagan and also promoted individuals from humble backgrounds, often their clients, to high political positions, including generals and governors. This practice, however, introduced political instability as slaves and clients were loyal to their immediate masters rather than their heirs. The accession of new Sultans often led to conflicts between old and new nobility. The appointment of individuals from humble origins was criticized by contemporary Persian tawarikh authors, who viewed it as a sign of the Sultan's poor judgment.

The Iqta System

Similar to earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq rulers appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes, known as iqtas. The holder of an iqta was called an iqtadar or muqti. The primary duties of the muqti were to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order within their iqtas. In return for their military services, muqtis collected revenues from their assigned territories as salary and used these revenues to pay their soldiers.

Control Over Muqtis

To ensure accountability, the offices of muqtis were made non-inheritable, and they were often transferred after short periods. Strict conditions were imposed during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. State-appointed accountants monitored the revenue collected by the muqtis, ensuring they collected only the prescribed taxes and maintained the requisite number of soldiers.

Land Revenue And Taxes

As the Delhi Sultans extended their control over the hinterlands, they compelled landed chieftains and landlords to accept their authority. Under Alauddin Khalji, the state took direct control of land revenue assessment and collection. The rights of local chieftains to levy taxes were abolished, and they were also made to pay taxes. Sultanate administrators measured land and maintained detailed records. The primary taxes included kharaj (on cultivation, approximately 50% of the peasant's produce), taxes on cattle, and taxes on houses.

Mongol Invasions and Responses

The Delhi Sultanate faced Mongol incursions, particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. Alauddin Khalji responded by raising a large standing army and constructing a new garrison town, Siri. He supported the army through taxes collected from the Ganga-Yamuna doab, fixed at 50% of the peasant's yield. To manage the army's expenses and prevent inflation, Alauddin controlled the prices of goods in Delhi and punished merchants who charged more than the prescribed rates. His measures were effective in ensuring cheap prices and adequate supplies, successfully repelling Mongol threats.

Muhammad Tughluq also raised a large army and planned an offensive against Mongol territory. However, instead of building a new garrison town, he relocated the residents of Delhi's old city (Dehli-i Kuhna) to Daulatabad in the south, housing soldiers in the vacated area. He levied additional taxes to fund the army, which, coinciding with a famine, caused widespread resentment and rebellion. Muhammad Tughluq also introduced a "token" currency made of cheap metals, which people distrusted, leading to hoarding of gold and silver coins and easy counterfeiting. His administrative measures, including a disastrous campaign in Kashmir and the recall of the token currency, were ultimately a failure.

The Sultanate In The Fifteenth And Sixteenth Centuries

Following the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526. During this period, many regions like Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and South India gained independence, establishing flourishing states with prosperous capitals. This era also witnessed the rise of new ruling groups such as the Afghans and Rajputs.

Successor States

Several states emerged after the decline of the Tughluqs, characterized by strong administration and military power, even if small in size. These independent rulers established prosperous capitals in various regions.

The Sur Dynasty

Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) rose from being a manager of a small territory to challenging and defeating the Mughal emperor Humayun. He captured Delhi and established his own dynasty. Though the Sur dynasty ruled for only fifteen years, its administration, which refined Alauddin Khalji's methods, served as a model for Akbar's efficient administration.